[48] Baybars' strategy regarding the Crusader fortresses along the Syrian coast was not to capture and utilize the fortresses, but to destroy them and thus prevent their potential future use by new waves of Crusaders. [55] In 1275, the Mamluk governor of Qus, with Bedouin allies, launched an expedition against Makuria, defeating king David in battle at Dongola in 1276, and installed Shakanda as king. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). [75] This partially explains his purges of the thousands of mamluks purchased by his predecessors. [162] The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive. [201] The production of high-quality paper at this time also allowed for pages to be larger, which in turn encouraged artists to elaborate new motifs and designs to fill these larger formats. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. [169] The ustadar was often referred to as the ustadar al-aliyah (grand master of the house) to distinguish from ustadar saghirs (lesser majordomos) whose authority was subordinate to the ustadar al-aliyah and who oversaw specific aspects of the court and citadel, such as the sultan's treasury, private property and the kitchens of the citadel. [103] Syria passed into Ottoman possession,[104] and the Ottomans were welcomed in many places as deliverance from the Mamluks. [143] The Al Fadl tribe eventually lost favor, while the Bedouin tribes of al-Karak were strengthened by the later Bahri sultans. Compared to the likes of the American Slave Trade, Mamluks were treated well and even granted freedom after years of initial servitude, though they were expected to keep loyal to their former masters. 1: Map of the Mamluk Sultanate, 1317 CE Author: User "Ro4444" Source: Wikimedia Commons License: CC BY-SA 4.0. Afterward, he purged and/or arrested the Mu'izziyah and any Bahri mamluks he could locate in Egypt in a bid to eliminate dissent towards his rule. On January 25, the Mamluk Sultanate collapsed. Ceramic production was relatively less important overall, in part because Chinese porcelains were widely available. [124], Christians and Jews in the sultanate were governed by the dual authority of their respective religious institutions and the sultan. Source: RomanDeckert, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. An emir's main source of income were the agricultural products of his iqta, and with those revenues, he was able to fund his private corps. Coloured glass had been common in the preceding Ayyubid period, but during the Mamluk period enamel and gilding became the most important techniques of decorating glass. Qutuz had the emissaries killed, an act which historian Joseph Cummins called the "worst possible insult to the Mongol throne". [199], Patronage varied over time, but the two high points of the arts were the reigns of al-Nasir Muhammad and of Qaytbay. [148] Cairo remained the capital of the sultanate and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Cairo Citadel serving as the sultan's headquarters. [92] In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji. [154] When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots, coup plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. [207] Patrons, including sultans and high-ranking emirs, typically set out to build mausoleums for themselves but attached to them various charitable structures such as madrasas, khanqahs, sabils, or mosques. [101] The second expedition was against the Aq Qoyonlu capital of Amid, which ended with the Aq Qoyonlu recognizing Mamluk suzerainty. Source: Wikimedia Commons. [45] The need for smooth delivery of correspondence also led to the large scale repair or construction of roads and bridges along the postal route. Map 8.13. This study of Mamluk metalwork fittings presents a hitherto largely ignored body of Mamluk metalwork objects, i.e. Keep reading to learn more about the Mamluk Sultanate environment, culture, and more. [154] Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own khushdashiyyah,[155] defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him. Slave-soldiers who served the Islamic dynasties during the Medieval Era; meaning "one who is owned". [84] Concurrently, Hasan began recruiting and promoting the awlad al-nas (descendants of mamluks who did not experience the enslavement/manumission process) in the military and administration, a process that lasted for the remainder of the Bahri period. [110] Another contributing factor was the wave of Arab tribal migration to Egypt and subsequent intermarriage between Arabs and the indigenous population. [163], The Ayyubid army had lacked a clear and permanent hierarchical system and one of Baybars' early reforms was creating a military hierarchy. Best study tips and tricks for your exams. [141] However, during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality iqtaat in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the Syrian Desert region. The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. [32], Afterward, Aybak proceeded to purge those in his retinue and in the Salihiyyah whom he believed were disloyal to him, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in Gaza, but also in Upper Egypt and Syria. At around the same time, Baybars' forces captured Safad from the Knights Templar, and shortly after, Ramla, both cities in interior Palestine. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph al-Musta'sim. Who was the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty? Warring continued between the Mamluks and Mongols, with the Mamluks consistently defeating the Central Asian invaders. In 1254, Aybak had his Mu'izzi mamluks assassinate Aktay in the Citadel of Cairo. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. Then in the summer of 1260, the . [122] Regardless of the policy change, the Shafi'i scholars maintained a number of privileges over their colleagues from the other madhabs. The Qalyub kashif killed another Arab Bedouin Shaykh, 'Ali al-Asmar ibn Abi'l-Shawarib. [168], The ustadar (from the Arabic ustadh al-dar, "master of the house") was the chief of staff of the sultan, responsible for organizing the royal court's daily activities, managing the personal budget of the sultan and supervising all of the buildings of the Cairo Citadel and its staff. [162] Following the Battle of Ain Jalut, Baybars restructured the army into three components: the Royal Mamluk regiment, the soldiers of the emirs, and the halqa (non-mamluk soldiers). A state ruled by slave soldiers of predominantly Turkish, and later Circassian, origin from 1250 to 1517. [99] During his reign, Shaykh reestablished the state's fiscal administration to replenish the treasury. Nonetheless, with rare exception, the Burji sultans were all linked to the regime's founder Barquq through blood or mamluk affiliation. [97] To that end, Barquq dispatched the Berber Hawwara tribesmen of the Nile Delta to Upper Egypt to keep the Arab tribes in check. [80] This unorthodox move, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother as-Salih Ismail in June 1342. Explore the physical, political, and human geography of North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, and wider Islamic world . [45] During his early reign and through heavy financial expense, Baybars rebuilt and stringently trained the Mamluk army, which grew from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. "Slave-soldiers" who served the Islamic dynasties during the Medieval Era, meaning "one who is owned.". By the end of the 13th century, through the efforts of sultans Baybars, Qalawun (r.12791290) and al-Ashraf Khalil (r.12901293), they conquered the Crusader states, expanded into Makuria (Nubia), Cyrenaica, the Hejaz and southern Anatolia. [199] Architecture was the most significant form of Mamluk patronage and numerous artistic objects were commissioned to furnish Mamluk religious buildings, such as glass lamps, Qur'an manuscripts, brass candlesticks, and wooden minbars. [26], Shajar ad-Durr ensured the Salihiyyah's dominance of the paramilitary elite, and ushered in a process of establishing patronage and kinship ties with the Salihiyyah. [185] The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other aspects of rural infrastructure. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. [17] To provision his mamluks, as-Salih forcibly seized the iqtaat (fiefs; singular iqta) of his predecessors' emirs. [68], Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother, an-Nasir Muhammad, being overthrown the following year by a Mongol mamluk of Qalawun, al-Adil Kitbugha, who in turn was succeeded by a Greek mamluk of Qalawun, Husam ad-Din Lajin. Sultans were Islamic rulers, essentially kings of Muslim states (called sultanates). Jamdariyyah) and Bahri (pl. [142] Competition over iqtaat and the post of amir al-arab (chief commander of the Bedouin) among the Bedouin tribes of Syria, particularly the Al Fadl, led to conflict and rebellion among the tribes, leading to mass bloodshed in Syria in the aftermath of an-Nasir Muhammad's death. From their Islamic masters, the Mamluks learned command and combat strategy, science, mathematics, art, law, and administration. [110] Arabic's wide use among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling and scholarly elite. The Crusade ended with King Louis IX defeated and ransomed back to France for a hefty sum (some historians estimate the ransom to be equivalent to a third of France's economy at the time). [40] Hulagu sent emissaries to Qutuz in Cairo, demanding submission to Mongol rule. The Mamluks were distinctly Islamic, but many Christians and Jews lived within their Sultanate. [114] Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots,[116] and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. [126] Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulty under Mamluk rule than under previous Muslim powers. [189], Egypt and Syria played a central transit role in international trade in the Middle Ages. [71] The Mamluks concurrently experienced a deterioration of their lucrative position in international trade and the economy of the sultanate declined, further weakening the Bahri regime. [176], The system largely consisted of land assignments from the state in return for military services. [71] Most of his successors, except for an-Nasir Hasan (r. 13471351, 13541361) and al-Ashraf Sha'ban (r. 13631367), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. Empire.) [110] Similar to their Ayyubid predecessors, the Bahri sultans showed particular favoritism towards the Shafi'i madhab, while also promoting the other major Sunni madhabs, namely the Maliki, Hanbali and Hanafi. Especially Great Seljuk Empire whose origin was formed by the Turkmens had . Have all your study materials in one place. The muhtasib in Cairo was the most senior of the four and his position was akin to that of a finance minister. By the 16th century, gunpowder was becoming increasingly popular and effective in combat, and the Mamluks were slow to the draw. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. [30] Aybak moved against the Bahriyyah in 1251 by shutting down their Rawda headquarters in a bid to sap Aktay's power base. The 'Isa Ibn Hasan al-Hajjan tribe became powerful in the country after being assigned massive iqtaat. The Bahri sultans were usually selected from a few . After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim I attacked the Dulkadirids, an Egyptian vassal, and sent their chief's head to al-Ghawri. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. Imported luxury goods from the east sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture. [144] Bedouin tribal wars frequently disrupted trade and travel in Upper Egypt, and caused the destruction of cultivated lands and sugar processing plants. [93], Barquq died in 1399 and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son, an-Nasir Faraj, who was in Damascus at the time. [119] In addition, there was a significant minority of Coptic Christians. Afterward, the Mamluks proceeded to recapture Damascus and the other Syrian cities taken by the Mongols. Then, Aybak's successor, another Mamluk commander named Qutuz, officially founded the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250 CE. [148] In Hama, the Mamluks had permitted the Ayyubids to continue to govern until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320, Abu'l Fida, was granted the honorary title of sultan by an-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the nuwwab of the provinces were Mamluk emirs. [88] Yalbugha was subsequently killed by his own mamluks in an uprising in 1366. [187] Furthermore, the maintenance of the Mamluk army in Syria relied on the state's control over Syrian agricultural revenues. [172] The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, which consisted of gold dinars, silver dirhams and copper fulus. Mosque lamps had a bulbous body with a wide flaring neck at the top. [118] Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. One Mamluk, Al-Alfi was reported by al-Jabarti to marry Bedouin women many times, sending those back he did not like and keeping those that pleased him. [59] Among these early policies were the elimination of illegal taxes that burdened the merchant community and extensive building and renovation projects for Islam's holiest sites, such as the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron. The latter was killed in a mamluk revolt and was succeeded by his brother al-Muzaffar Hajji, who was also killed in a mamluk revolt in late 1347. [98] Thus, Mamluk authority throughout the sultanate was significantly eroded, while the capital Cairo experienced an economic crisis. [140] Qalawun purchased horses from the Bedouin of Barqa, which were inexpensive but of high quality, while an-Nasir Muhammad spent extravagant sums for horses from numerous Bedouin sources, including Barqa, Syria, Iraq and Bahrayn (eastern Arabia). Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and cotton, respectively. [63] While the Salihi mamluks were typically Kipchak Turks, Qalawun diversified mamluk ranks purchasing numerous non-Turks, particularly Circassians, forming out of them the Burji regiment. [123] Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the Rifa'iyyah and Badawiyyah. Mamluk terracotta cup from the 14th century. In addition, his diplomacy was also intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia. Before they established their official Sultanate, many Mamluks functioned in administrative and governing positions in the Ayyubid Sultanate. Hulagu Khan's Siege of Baghdad ended the Islamic Golden Age. [182] A second and final rawk was completed in 1315 under Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad and influenced political and economic developments of the Mamluk Sultanate until its fall in the early 16th century. The early Mamlks carried out a host of large-scale construction projects developing, extending, and intensifying the irrigation system, widening and deepening canals, erecting and strengthening dikes, and constructing dams and sluices that helped to control the system during the Nile flood season. [34], Meanwhile, the Bahriyya faction in Gaza commanded by Baybars sought to enlist their services with an-Nasir Yusuf. [156] Besides his khushdashiyyah, the sultan derived power from other emirs, with whom there was constant tension, particularly in times of peace with external enemies. True or False: The Mamluks were massacred by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, effectively ending their existence. [31] Instead of isolating Aktay as was Aybak's intention, the assignment allowed Aktay to impose extortionate taxes in Upper Egypt and provide him the personal funds to finance his patronage of the Bahriyyah. [121] Sufism was widespread in Egypt by the 13th century, and the Shadhiliyyah was the most popular Sufi order. [164] In addition, an emir of one hundred could be assigned one thousand mounted troops during battle. "The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration? [71] To avoid the experiences of his previous two reigns where the mamluks of Qalawun and Khalil held sway and periodically assumed the sultanate, an-Nasir Muhammad launched efforts to establish a centralized autocracy. [92], Barquq solidified his control over the sultanate in 1393, when his forces killed the major opponent to his rule, Mintash, in Syria. Art depicting a Mamluk horseback rider. [177] According to historian J. van Steenbergen, The iqta system was fundamental in assuring a legitimized, controlled and guaranteed access to the resources of the Syro-Egyptian realm to an upper level of Mamluk society that was primarily military in form and organization. [92] This paved the way for Barquq's usurpation of the sultanate once more in February 1390, firmly establishing the Burji regime. [152] More often than not, the sons of sultans were elected by the senior emirs with the ultimate intention that they serve as convenient figureheads presiding over an oligarchy of the emirs. [45], Another major component to Baybar's rule was intrastate communication. [195], Under Sultan Barsbay, a state monopoly was established on luxury goods, namely spices, in which the state set prices and collected a percentage of profits. Between 1688 and 1755, Mamluk beys, allied with Bedouin and factions within the Ottoman garrison, deposed no fewer than thirty-four governors. [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. [153] In an anecdotal testament to the caliph's lack of real authority, a group of rebellious mamluks responded to Sultan Lajin's presentation of the Caliph al-Hakim's decree asserting Lajin's authority with the following comment, recorded by Ibn Taghribirdi: "Stupid fellow. [102], Barsbay launched military expeditions against the Aq Qoyonlu in 1429 and 1433. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. [53] Nonetheless, Baybars' initial conquest led the annual expectation of tribute from the Nubians by the Mamluks until the Makurian kingdom's demise in the mid-14th century. The Mamluks were ubiquitous in Egypt within the Ayyubid Sultanate (11711250). [184], In Egypt, Mamluk centralization over agricultural production was more thorough than in Syria and Palestine for a number of reasons. [195] These goods originated in Persia, India, and Southeast Asia and made their way to Europe via the Mamluk ports of Syria and Egypt. [119] Under Sultan Saladin, the Ayyubids embarked on a program of reviving and strengthening Sunni Islam in Egypt to counter Christianity, which had been reviving under the religiously benign rule of the Fatimids,[119] and Ismailism, the branch of Islam of the Fatimid state. [39] Qutuz sent military reinforcements to his erstwhile enemy an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria, and reconciled with the Bahriyyah, including Baybars, who was allowed to return to Egypt, to face the common Mongol threat. [76], To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought the confirmation of their executive authority from a caliph. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to Venice and Syria inviting them to join arms and recover the territory taken from them by the Ottoman Empire. [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. [165] Starting with the reign of Qalawun, the sultan and the military administration maintained lists of all emirs throughout the sultanate and defined their roles as part of the right or left flanks of the army should they be mobilized for war. True or False: The Mamluks were successful in establishing their own sultanate in Egypt. Timur ended his occupation of Syria in 1402 to pursue his war against the Ottomans in Anatolia, who he deemed to be a more dangerous threat to his rule. [100], Before Shaykh died in 1421, he sought to offset the power of the Circassian mamluks by importing Turkish mamluks and installing a Turk as atabeg al-asakir in 1420 to serve as regent for his infant son Ahmad. 76-80 Seljuk Empire Mamluk Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Geographic Location and Dates they maintained powe r 11 century, Middle east North Africa 1250-1517 South Asia Social Social classes & social hierarchy Who has power in society? Headed by the 13th century, and the Shadhiliyyah was the most senior of the thousands of Mamluks manumitted. And their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration one thousand mounted troops battle! ] Thus, Mamluk beys, allied with Bedouin and factions within the Ottoman,! 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